The present invention relates generally to the field of electromagnetic waves and more specifically to a method for maximizing and minimizing the scattering and absorption of electromagnetic waves.
When light strikes a material, it interacts with the atoms in the material, and the corresponding effects depend on the frequency of the light and the atomic structure of the material. In transparent materials, the electrons in the material oscillate, or vibrate, while the light is present. This oscillation momentarily takes energy away from the light and then puts it back again. The result is to slow down the light wave without leaving energy behind. Denser materials generally slow the light more than less dense materials, but the effect also depends on the frequency or wavelength of the light.
Materials that are not completely transparent either absorb light or reflect it. In absorbing materials, such as dark colored cloth, the energy of the oscillating electrons does not go back to the light. The energy instead goes toward increasing the motion of the atoms, which causes the material to heat up. The atoms in reflective materials, such as metals, re-radiate light that cancels out the original wave. Only the light re-radiated back out of the material is observed. All materials exhibit some degree of absorption, refraction, and reflection of light. The study of the behavior of light in materials and how to use this behavior to control light is called optics.
Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one kind of material into another. Because light travels at a different speed in different materials, it must change speeds at the boundary between two materials. If a beam of light hits this boundary at an angle, then light on the side of the beam that hits first will be forced to slow down or speed up before light on the other side hits the new material. This makes the beam bend, or refract, at the boundary. Light bouncing off an object underwater, for instance, travels first through the water and then through the air to reach an observer""s eye. From certain angles an object that is partially submerged appears bent where it enters the water because light from the part underwater is being refracted.
The refractive index of a material is the ratio of the speed of light in empty space to the speed of light inside the material. Because light of different frequencies travels at different speeds in a material, the refractive index is different for different frequencies. This means that light of different colors is bent by different angles as it passes from one material into another. This effect produces the familiar colorful spectrum seen when sunlight passes through a glass prism. The angle of bending at a boundary between two transparent materials is related to the refractive indices of the materials through Snell""s Law, a mathematical formula that is used to design lenses and other optical devices to control light.
Reflection also occurs when light hits the boundary between two materials. Some of the light hitting the boundary will be reflected into the first material. If light strikes the boundary at an angle, the light is reflected at the same angle, similar to the way balls bounce when they hit the floor. Light that is reflected from a flat boundary, such as the boundary between air and a smooth lake, will form a mirror image. Light reflected from a curved surface may be focused into a point, a line, or onto an area, depending on the curvature of the surface.
Scattering occurs when the atoms of a transparent material are not smoothly distributed over distances greater than the length of a light wave, but are bunched up into lumps of molecules or particles. The sky is bright because molecules and particles in the air scatter sunlight. Light with higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths is scattered more than light with lower frequencies and longer wavelengths. The atmosphere scatters violet light the most, but human eyes do not see this color, or frequency, well. The eye responds well to blue, though, which is the next most scattered color. Sunsets look red because when the sun is at the horizon, sunlight has to travel through a longer distance of atmosphere to reach the eye. The thick layer of air, dust and haze scatters away much of the blue light.
The waves that accompany light are made up of oscillating, or vibrating, electric and magnetic fields, which are force fields that surround charged particles and influence other charged particles in their vicinity. These electric and magnetic fields change strength and direction at right angles, or perpendicularly, to each other in a plane. The electromagnetic wave formed by these fields travels in a direction perpendicular to the field""s strength (coming out of the plane). The relationship between the fields and the wave formed can be understood by imagining a wave in a taut rope. Grasping the rope and moving it up and down simulates the action of a moving charge upon the electric field. It creates a wave that travels along the rope in a direction that is perpendicular to the initial up and down movement.
Because electromagnetic waves are transversexe2x80x94that is, the vibration that creates them is perpendicular to the direction in which they travel, they are similar to waves on a rope or waves traveling on the surface of water. Unlike these waves, however, which require a rope or water, light does not need a medium, or substance, through which to travel. Light from the sun and distant stars reaches the earth by traveling through the vacuum of space. The waves associated with natural sources of light are irregular, like the water waves in a busy harbor. Such waves can be thought of as being made up of many smooth waves, where the motion is regular and the wave stretches out indefinitely with regularly spaced peaks and valleys. Such regular waves are called monochromatic because they correspond to a single color of light.
The wavelength of a monochromatic wave is the distance between two consecutive wave peaks. Wavelengths of visible light can be measured in meters or in nanometers (nm), which are one billionth of a meter. Frequency corresponds to the number of wavelengths that pass by a certain point in space in a given amount of time. This value is usually measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz). All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, so in one second, more short waves will pass by a point in space than will long waves. This means that shorter waves have a higher frequency than longer waves. The relationship between wavelength, speed, and frequency is expressed by the equation: wave speed equals wavelength times frequency, or
c=lf
where c is the speed of a light wave in m/sec (3xc3x97108 m/sec in a vacuum), l is the wavelength in meters, and f is the wave""s frequency in Hz.
The amplitude of an electromagnetic wave is the height of the wave, measured from a point midway between a peak and a trough to the peak of the wave. This height corresponds to the maximum strength of the electric and magnetic fields and to the number of photons in the light.
The electromagnetic spectrum refers to the entire range of frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic waves. Light traditionally refers to the range of frequencies that can be seen by humans. The frequencies of these waves are very high, about one-half to three-quarters of a million billion (5xc3x971014 to 7.5xc3x971014) Hz. Their wavelengths range from 400 to 700 nm. X rays have wavelengths ranging from several thousandths of a nanometer to several nanometers, and radio waves have wavelengths ranging from several meters to several thousand meters.
A laser is a special kind of light source that produces very regular waves that permit the light to be very tightly focused. Laser is actually an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Each radiating charge in a non-laser light source produces a light wave that may be a little different from the waves produced by the other charges. Laser sources have atoms whose electrons radiate all in step, or synchronously. As a result, the electrons produce light that is polarized, monochromatic, and coherent, which means that its waves remain in step, with their peaks and troughs coinciding, over long distances.
This coherence is made possible by the phenomenon of stimulated emission. If an atom is immersed in a light wave with a frequency, polarization, and direction the same as light that the atom could emit, then the radiation already present stimulates the atom to emit more of the same, rather than emit a slightly different wave. So the existing light is amplified by the addition of one more photon from the atom. A luminescent light source can provide the initial amplification, and mirrors are used to continue the amplification. Lasers have many applications in medicine, scientific research, military technology, and communications. They provide a very focused, powerful, and controllable energy source that can be used to perform delicate tasks. Laser light can be used to drill holes in diamonds and to make microelectronic components. The precision of lasers helps doctors perform surgery without damaging the surrounding tissue. Lasers are useful for space communications because laser light can carry a great deal of information and travel long distances without losing signal strength.
The present invention provides a systematic prescription for selecting appropriate spherical particle size and properties, in conjunction with the properties of the medium in which the particles are to be suspended, for applications involving scattering and absorption of electromagnetic waves. The invention is applicable to a variety of applications where it is desirable to either maximize or minimize scattering and/or absorption of electromagnetic radiation. The following description treats the general case of maximized attenuation from scattering or absorption. The total scattering plus absorption is referred to hereinafter as attenuation.
The present invention is a method for maximizing or minimizing electromagnetic scattering and absorption. As such, it is applicable to the entire electromagnetic spectrum. The specific application in which the invention is used, such as stealth or identification applications, determines which procedures of a set of procedures, discussed further below, are applied. This systematic prescription allows investigation of many combinations of scattering materials and media via calculated predictions of scattering and absorption properties. A significant improvement over trial and error methods of measuring properties of material combinations results. Using this procedure, only those combinations found to be promising for the application need be obtained and measured if confirmation of the predictions is desired, thus saving time and expense.